Intake of Coffee and Coffee Caffeine(3): To Discover Additional 13 Amazing Health Benefits, According to Medical Research

Recent studies suggested that coffee may process various health benefits through its antioxidants and caffeine activities.

(For health benefits from 1-11, do to this link https://kylejnorton.blogspot.ca/2018/03/intake-of-roasted-bean-coffee-beverage.html)

((For health benefits from 12-22, do to this link https://kylejnorton.blogspot.ca/2018/03/intake-of-roasted-bean-coffee-beverage_13.html

23. Sex Hormones

Sex hormones are a class of hormones, affecting sexual development or reproduction. Steroid-binding globulin(SSBG), is a sex hormone, having a direct effect on androgen and estrogen.

A recent study suggested that coffee may have a direct effect in influence the production of sex hormone estrogen and testosterone depending to gender difference.

In a 8-week parallel-arm randomized controlled trial with Healthy adults (n = 42) recruited from the Boston community, including regular coffee consumers, nonsmokers, and overweight, randomized to five 6-ounce cups of caffeinated or decaffeinated instant coffee or water per day, at 4 weeks, researchers surprisingly found that

1. Decaffeinated coffee drinking was associated with a borderline significantly increased levels of SHBG in women, but not in men.

2. At week 4, decaffeinated coffee decreased total and free testosterone and caffeinated coffee decreased only total testosterone in women.

3. Contrasted to women participants, men consumption of caffeinated coffee displayed a significantly increased total testosterone and decreased total and free estradiol hormones.

4. The study also indicated that caffeinated coffee consumption do not exert any effect on SHBG in either men or women.

But conflicted to the healthy young adult, coffee and coffee caffeine showed an elevated effect as a mediator of sex hormone-binding globulin in both androgen and estrogen in type 2 diabetic patients, particularly in women.

Additionally, according to the cross-sectional study of 2377 nondiabetic pre- and postmenopausal women from the E3N cohort study in a multivariate adjusted model, intake of more than 3 cup of coffee daily coffee and caffeine ≥265 mg/day were associated with an increased SHBG level distribution (<46.3 nmol/L), in compared to no risk association of decaffeinated coffee subgroup.

Further more, the prevention of low level of SHBG of both caffeinated coffee and caffeine, may demonstrate a potential and positive effect in reduced risk of T2DM..

More importantly, in the examine a study during a median follow-up of 10 years of 359 postmenopausal women with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes matched with 359 control subjects by age, race, duration of follow-up, and time of blood draw, coffee and caffeine were associated to increased levels of fee and total testosterone among postmenopausal women.

The finding evidences suggested that coffee and caffeine has a extreme effect in exhibition of sex hormone estrogen and testosterone through lower level of SHBG in menopause women and prevented onset of type 2 diabetes.

Decaffeinated coffee decreased total and free testosterone through significantly increased levels of SHBG in women. And caffeinated coffee displayed a significantly increased total testosterone and decreased total and free estradiol in men.

*24. Skin blood Flow

25. Alertness and Rapid Reaction

26. Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) 

27. Obesity

Green coffee intake may have a profound effect in reduced risk and treatment of obesity, a renowned institute study suggested.

According to the joint study led by the Huanggang Normal University, the health benefits of coffee studies over last 10 years, expressed a significant improvement of risk and treatment of obesity in decreased lipid accumulation in cells through regulating the cell cycle during fat metabolism.

Additionally, coffee consumption induced changes in transcription factors in fat deposit, decreased body weight and visceral fat form of animal and humans studies

Furthermore, coffee influenced gut microbiota in obese animals and humans also played an important role for used as a functional and integrated food in reduced risk and treatment of obesity.

Other in the study of obesity induced in mice using a HFD for four weeks, fed only HFD or HFD with GCBE at 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg suggested that

1.Mice treated with green coffee intake showed a significantly decreased body weight gain, liver weight and white adipose tissue weights with regulation of adipose tissue lipolysis hormones, such as adiponectin and leptin.

2. Mice treated with green coffee intake also demonstrated a decreased mRNA expression levels of adipogenesis and adipocyte metabolis related genes in adipose tissues and the liver, and decreased the corresponding protein expression.

3. GCBE treated mice had a lower fat mass with decreased relative body weight and fat mass in compared to HFD alone fed mice.

According to the information collected, Dr. Choi BK, the led author said, “GCBE has a potential anti-obesity effect with lowering body fat accumulation by regulating adipogenesis and lipid metabolism-related genes and proteins in WAT and liver”.

More importantly, in the study of male ddy mice fed a standard diet containing GCBE and its principal constituents, namely, caffeine and chlorogenic acid, for 14 day, researchers at the Oryza Oil & Fat Chemical Co,, Ltd, indicated that

1. GCBE with 0.5% and 1% reduced visceral fat content and body weight

2. Caffeine and chlorogenic acid showed a tendency to reduce visceral fat and body weight

3. Oral administration of GCBE (100 and 200 mg/kg. day) for 13 days showed a tendency to reduce hepatic TG in mice

4. Chlorogenic acid (60 mg/kg. day) reduced hepatic TG level

The findings displayed a strong effect of coffee and its phytochemicals in reduced weight gain and fat accumulation by inhibition of fat absorption and activation of fat metabolism in the liver may be considered as a functional and integrated food against risk and treatment of obesity.

28. Reduced Risk of β-Cell Autoimmunity 

Maternal consumption of coffee may have a profound effect in reduced risk of β-cell autoimmunity inducing Type 1 diabetes in the offspring, according to the University of Tampere.

In a prospective Finnish birth cohort of 4297 infants with human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQB1-conferred susceptibility to type 1 diabetes with lbood samples collected from the children at 3-12 months intervals to measure type 1 diabetes-associated antibodies against islet cells (ICA), insulin, glutamate dehydroxylase, and islet antigen 2, returned questionnaire from mothers indicated that intake of coffee during perchance expresses a inversely associated risk of development of advanced β-cell autoimmunity in their infants.

Even after adjusting to other risk factors, coffee showed a linearly dependent to amount of cups intake of the mothers against risk of β-cell autoimmunity incidence in newborns.

Additionally, in the review of data comprised 4297 children with increased genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes, born at the University Hospital of Oulu or Tampere, Finland, between October 1997 and December 2002 monitored for diabetes-associated autoantibodies from samples obtained at 3-12-mo intervals, returned surveys from mothers indicated that coffee increased antioxidant status have a a significant effect in reduced risk of advanced beta cell autoimmunity development in children, compared to substantial risk of the offspring in mother who did not intake any antioxidant dietary nutrients.

Further more, Dr. Uusitalo L, the lead researcherssaid, “the hazard ratios, indicating the change in risk per a 2-fold increase in the intake of each antioxidant, were nonsignificant and close to 1″ and “High maternal intake of retinol, beta-carotene, vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, zinc, or manganese does not protect the child from development of advanced beta cell autoimmunity in early childhood”.

Interestingly, the returned questionarre from participants in the data from a population-based case-control study with incident cases of adult onset (≥ 35 years) diabetes, including 245 cases of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody positive), 759 cases of Type 2 diabetes (glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody negative), together with 990 control subjects without diabetes, randomly selected from the population, researchers found that intake of coffee may have enormous effect in reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, but conversely, coffee intake showed to associate to elevated risk of autoimmunity and possibly an increased risk of Type 1-like latent autoimmune diabetes in these group of adults.

Dr. Löfvenborg JE, the lead author in above study said, ” for every additional cup of coffee consumed per day, there was a 15.2% (P = 0.0268) increase in glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody levels”.

Taking altogether, There is no doubt that coffee consumption during pregnancy has a substantial effect in attenuated risk of type 1 diabetes caused by advanced β-cell autoimmunity. But coffee consumed in adulthood may increased risk of Type 1-like latent autoimmune diabetes adults. contrastively.

29. Kidney Stone 

Kidney stone is a deposit of insoluble calcium compounds in the kidney, affecting over 10% of world population, according to statistic.

According to the Warsaw Agricultural University, coffee and tea consumed daily and regularly expressed an increased risk of kidney stone by more than 80% in compared to risk of other factors, probably due to presence of oxalates found in coffee.

In fact, in the analyzed nutritional habits of 22 stone formers with special regard to oxalate content as one of the main nutritional lithogenic factors associated with kidney stones, researchers found that risk of kidney stone increased substantially for men and women if dietary oxalate intake was over 354 mg and 406 mg, respectively

Contrastively, a prospective study in investigated relation between intake of 21 different beverages and risk of symptomatic kidney stones in a cohort of 45,289 men, 40-75 years of age conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health, suggested that the risk of stone formationdecreased by 10%. of the amount for each 240-ml (8-oz) serving consumed daily in caffeinated coffee.

Other, in the analyzed association between intake of caffeine and incidence of kidney stones in 3 large ongoing cohort studies, and the Nurses’ Health Studies (NHS) I and II also found a contradictory result in related to coffee and other plant base caffeine products.

In a total of 217,883 participants; over a median follow-up of >8 y, 4982 incident cases of kidney stone occurred studies, researchers files the following results.

1. The highest quintile of caffeine intake (95% CI: 12%, 38%) showed a significant reduced risk of developing stones by 26%, according to the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS).

2. Caffeine inkate showed a 29 % lower risk in the NHS I cohort, and

3. and 31% lower risk in the NHS II cohort

Dr. the lead author said. “Among 6033 participants with 24-h urine data, the intake of caffeine was associated with higher urine volume, calcium, and potassium and with lower urine oxalate and supersaturation for calcium oxalate and uric acid”.

30. Longevity

Intake of coffee may have a profound effect in strengthen the telomere length, a biomarker of living longer, a renowned study suggested.

In a cross-sectional association between coffee consumption and telomere length in 4780 women , using the data from the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS) from a prospective cohort study of female nurses began in 1976 with relative telomere length measured in peripheral blood leukocytes by the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, after adjusting to other risk factors, researchers found that

1. Higher total coffee use were significantly associated with longer telomeres in compared to non drinkers

2. Intake of 2 to <3 and ≥3 cups of coffee/d showed a relative ratio of 1.29 and 1.36, respectively

3. Telomere length was associated linearly to caffeine consumption from all dietary sources

The result of findings, showed a strong indication of correlation between coffee caffeine intake and the length of telomeres among female nurses.

Dr. Liu JJ, the led author said, “ ... better understand the influence of coffee consumption on telomeres, which may uncover new knowledge of how coffeeconsumption affects health and longevity”.

Other, in a study of total of 5826 adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) cross-sectionally, using the quantitative polymerase chain reaction method, telomere length compared to standard reference DNA, after adjusting to other risk factors, including age, gender, race, marital status, education, housing, smoking, BMI, physical activity, alcohol use,.. researchers showed that

1. Caffeine consumption was inversely related to telomere length

2. For each 100 mg of caffeine consumed, telomeres were 35.4 base pairs shorter

3. For each 100 mg of caffeine consumed among coffee drinkers only, telomeres were 36.7 base pairs shorter

4. Among non-coffee drinkers only, 40.0 base pairs shorter

In compared to non drinker(40.0 base pairs shorter), coffee caffeine( 36.7 base pairs shorter) and caffeine( 35.4 base pairs shorter) intake expressed a positive effect in increased genetic telomeres length.

31. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an exhibition of abnormal high blood glucose during pregnancy.

Coffee, a popular and social beverage all over the world, particular in the West, is a drink made from roasted bean from the Coffea plant, native to tropical Africa and Madagascar.

In a prospective study of 1744 non-diabetic pregnant women questioned during early gestation about their coffee consumption, researchers found that according to returned report, moderate coffee intake per day exerts a significant decreased risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in expected mothers in compared to non coffee intake pregnant women.

Dr. Adeney KL, the lead author said, “Moderate pre-pregnancy caffeinated coffee consumption may have a protective association with GDM”.

Also, in the study of first trimester coffee and tea consumption and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) on-diabetic women with singleton pregnancies in the Danish National Birth Cohort (n = 71,239), researchers showed that pregnant women with coffee heavy consumption showed a substantial high percentage(81.2%) of complication of GDM, in compared to only 1.5% in non drinkers.

Importantly, the incidence of GDM of this study was highest in pregnant women who drink more than 8 cups of coffee/day but without significant difference across intake in other levels.

With collective information from above study, it is safe to say, moderate coffee drinking in first trimester may have a protective effect in reduced risk of GDM but increased risk of complication in diabetic expected mothers who drank over 8 cups of coffee per day.

The examine of the protective effect of coffee in pregnancy women, researchers performed a study included 168 pregnant women aged 18-40 years, recruited at routine 20-week ultrasound with all participants kept a 4-day weighed food record following recruitment (commencement: gestational weeks 19-24), a prudent dietary pattern including moderated coffee intake accompanied with seafood; eggs; vegetables; fruits and berries; vegetable oils; nuts and seeds; pasta; breakfast cereals; and coffee, tea and cocoa powder is associated to reduced risk of GDM in pregnancy.

The findings evidences suggested that moderated coffee consumption with less than 8 cups/day expressed a protective effect against GDM and GDM complications.

32. Attenuated Risk of Suicide

In the review of data from 36,689 adult (age range 25-64 years) men and women, participated in the population surveys between 1972 and 1992 yielded 169 suicides.in a mean of 14.4 years, researchers found that

1. In compared to no heavy user, heavy user of coffee showed a relative ratio of 1.55

2. The adjusted relative risk of suicide increased substantially in heavy coffee user if combined to increasing level of joint heavy use of alcohol and cigarettes.

In other words, heavy coffee intake of participants showed a significant increased risk of suicide if accompanied with heavy use of alcohol and cigarettes.

Dr. Tanskanen A, the led author said, ” Clustering of the heavy use of ……..coffee could serve as a new marker for increased risk of suicide”.

To further support the differentiation of heavy coffee use in increased risk suicide, researchers at the

Center for Health Sciences, SRI International conducted a study of a multivariate structural equation modeling in a large cohort of male twins (N = 2,220 monozygotic and 2,373 dizygotic twin pairs; mean age = 62.1 years) from the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council’s World War II Twin Registry, strongly agreed that although genetic and environmental factors may account for the independent cluster risks, heavy coffee user displayed a enormous risk of suicide.

Other, in a 10-year follow-up study (1980 to 1990) in an ongoing cohort of 86 626 US female registered nurses aged 34 to 59 years in 1980, with free of diagnosed coronary heart disease, stroke, or cancer and Information on coffee and caffeine intake collected by a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire in 1980, researchers filed the following reports

1. There was 56 cases of suicide occurred during 832 704 person-years.

2. In compared to non drinker, coffee drinkers expressed a relative odd risk ratio of 0.34 women who consumed two to three cups per day

3. For women consumed four or more cups per day, the relative suicide risk was .42

4. After adjusting to other risk factors, the relative odd ratio remain constant

The finding showed a importantly correlated association of light and moderate coffee intake in reduced risk of suicide.

The efficacy in ameliorated risk of suicide among these women may be attributed to coffee activity in reduced incidence of depression as seen in other studies.

33. Mutagenicity 

Coffee and coffee caffeine may have a direct effect in mutagenicity in bacteria and fungi, but lesser in mammalian cells, a France study suggested.

According to the Université de Nancy, Coffee and caffeine showed a significant effect in gene mutation in bacteria and fungi, but in high concentrations, they expressed also a similarly mutagenic influence to mammalian cells in culture.

The mutagenic activity of caffeine can be observed through its potentiate in induced chromosomal aberrations through transforming sublethal damage of mutagenic agents into lethal damage. But conversely, intake of coffee and caffeine denostrated a protective effect in inhibit these mutagenic properties through theirs’ numerous chemicals depending to the time consumption in the presence of mutagenic agent.

Furthermore, the study also revealed that chemically reactive components such as aliphatic dicarbonyls from the caffeine were some of the culprits attributed to these mutagenic exhibition.

The findings suggested the duo effect of coffee and coffee caffeine on one hand, inhibited the gene mutation but on the hand displayed a significant mutagenic DNA damage to living organisms, but less in human even with moderated drinking habit.

Also in bacterial experiments, according to the observation from bacteria mutation assays, trigonelline, found in caffeine alone or in combination with most of the single amino acids found in caffeine and mixtures of amino acids, showed a potent mutagenic activity in Salmonella typhimurium strains.

Dr. Wu X, the lead author said, “Trigonelline and amino acids are natural components in green coffee beans. Model systems mimicking coffee roasting were used to produce heated samples of trigonelline, amino acids and glucose”.

Contractively, according to the coffee producing company, Nestlé Research Center, coffee intake have shown a strong effect in induced enzymes involved in xenobiotic detoxification processes and primary hepatocytes.

In animal study, the experiment also found that coffee induce the mRNA and protein expression of enzymes involved in promotion of cellular antioxidant defenses.

More importantly, coffee also exhibited chemoprotective effects of against toxic Aflatoxin B1 in duced genotoxicity in either human liver cell line and primary hepatocytes.

Taking altogether, coffee and coffee showed conflict results in inhibited and exhibited mutagenesis, but epidemiological studies agreed that coffee decreased risk of genetoxicity against many chronic illness through regulating AFB1-DNA and protein.

34. Respiratory Disease

Intake of coffee and coffee caffeine may have a potential effect in reduced risk and progression of respiratory disease, a renowned university study suggested.

Respiratory disease is a class of diseases involved abnormal lung function including conditions of the upper trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity,….

In review of 15 studies, including seven cohorts, six cross-sectionals, one case control and one randomized control trial, researchers at the joint study lead by the University of Coimbra, filed the below interesting results1. Risk of asthma was reduced in coffee injection group.

2. Coffee accompanied with honey displayed a positive effect in treatment for persistent post-infectious cough.

3. In control study, the higher risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD) prevalence was associated to coffee consumption.4. Coffee was also found to associate to lower respiratory mortality.

5. Coffee injection group also benefit to improved lung function

6. Smoking was a significant risk factor in all cases.

With all the information collected, Dr. Alfaro TM, the lead authors proposed, “Coffee consumption was associated with some positive effects on the respiratory system” and “coffee consumption may be a part of a healthy lifestyle leading to reduced respiratory morbidity.”

Other, in the study filed by the CHU de Nancy, coffee consumption showed a contradictory effect involving respiratory diseases.

1. Coffee intake showed a beneficial effect on bronchospasm.

2. But on other studies, coffee intake has been suspected of contributing to the development of chronic airflow obstruction (COPD) and bronchial cancer.

The study explained, these contrastive results may be attributed to the causal relationship in indirectly linking strong positive correlation between the consumption of coffee and use of tobacco.

The author also warmed that coffee taken in large quantities by pregnant women, may increase risk of neonatal apnoea in the newborn, if abrupt cessation in the caffeine level.

Also in the comparison of the prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and coffee with childhood asthma, researchers found that intake of coffee during pregnancy showed a strong effect in reduced risk of childhood asthma, according to the 63,652 live-born singletons enrolled in the Danish National Birth Cohort.

Taking together, coffee intake have a strong protection against respiratory diseases(including reduced risk of childhood asthma), but increased incidences of chronic airflow obstruction (COPD), and bronchial cancer, therefore, people with above exceptive disease should reduced intake of coffee and consult with their doctors.

35. Thyroid Cancer 

Epidemiological studies, linking coffee and coffee caffeine intake in prevalence of thyroid cancer incidence have been contradictory and inconclusive.

Thyroid cancer is a chronic condition of irregular cell growth in the thyroid gland.

Coffee, a popular and social beverage all over the world, particularly in the West, is a drink made from roast bean from the Coffea plant, native to tropical Africa and Madagascar.

In the review of database from Published studies in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Central, and the reference lists of the retrieved articles to evaluate the association between coffee consumption and the risk of thyroid cancer, researchers at the joint study lead by the Chosun University, filed the following results.

1. In a total of 1039 thyroid cancer cases and 220,816 controls were identified from five case-control studies and two cohort studies, the relative risk ratio of cancer incidence was was 0.88 in compared to base line.

2. Risk of thyroid cancer was reduced significantly only in hospital-based case-control studies.

Dr. Han MA, the head researcher said, “There was no significant association between coffee consumption and thyroid cancer risk according to our meta-analysis results” and “There was no significant heterogeneity among the study results”.

Other, in the analyzed data from a prospective cohort (100,507 persons (48,802 men; 51,705 women) aged 40-69) between green tea and coffee consumption and risk of thyroid cancer, assessed via a self-administered questionnaire, researchers at the National Cancer Center found no association between coffee intake and risk of thyroid cancer regardless to gender and amount of coffee intake per day.

Furthermore, in the pool sample consisted of 2725 thyroid cancer cases (2247 females, 478 males) and 4776 controls (3699 females, 1077 males), through intensive analysis of 14 case-control studies conducted in the United States, Europe, and Asia suggested that risk of thyroid cancer is not associated to coffee consumption, independent to gender difference.

The study also emphasized that even taking into account of other factors, caffeinated beverages did not alter thyroid cancer risk.

Contrastively, according to Aretaieion University Hospital, in a case-control, serially matched study containing 70 patients with thyroid cancer, 55 with benign thyroid disease and 71 controls, there were significantly reduced risk of thyroid disease among coffee and coffee caffeine drinkers. Even after adjustment for possible confounding variables, the association remained statistically significant

Dr. Linos A, the lead author said, ” The mechanism by which coffee consumption may play a protective role against development of benign or malignant thyroid neoplasms may be the stimulatory effect of caffeine on the intracellular cyclic AMP production, which is known to inhibit cell growth”.

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(15) Molecular mechanisms of the anti-obesity effect of bioactive compounds in tea and coffee by Pan MH1, Tung YC2, Yang G3, Li S3, Ho CT4.(PubMed)

(16) Green coffee bean extract improves obesity by decreasing body fat in high-fat diet-induced obese mice by Choi BK1, Park SB2, Lee DR1, Lee HJ2, Jin YY3, Yang SH4, Suh JW5.(PubMed)

(17) Inhibitory effect of green coffee bean extract on fat accumulation and body weight gain in mice by Shimoda H1, Seki E, Aitani M.(PubMed)

(18) Maternal food consumption during pregnancy and risk of advanced β-cell autoimmunity in the offspring by Virtanen SM1, Uusitalo L, Kenward MG, Nevalainen J, Uusitalo U, Kronberg-Kippilä C, Ovaskainen ML, Arkkola T, Niinistö S, Hakulinen T, Ahonen S, Simell O, Ilonen J, Veijola R, Knip M.(PubMed)

(19) Intake of antioxidant vitamins and trace elements during pregnancy and risk of advanced beta cell autoimmunity in the child by Uusitalo L1, Kenward MG, Virtanen SM, Uusitalo U, Nevalainen J, Niinistö S, Kronberg-Kippilä C, Ovaskainen ML, Marjamäki L, Simell O, Ilonen J, Veijola R, Knip M.(PubMed)

(20) Coffee consumption and the risk of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults–results from a Swedish case-control study by Löfvenborg JE1, Andersson T, Carlsson PO, Dorkhan M, Groop L, Martinell M, Rasouli B, Storm P, Tuomi T, Carlsson S.(PubMed)

(33) Chronic coffee consumption and respiratory disease: A systematic review by Alfaro TM1,2,3, Monteiro RA1, Cunha RA2, Cordeiro CR1,3.(PubMed)

(34) [Effects of coffee on the respiratory system].[Article in French] by Martinet Y1, Debry G.(PubMed)

(35) Association of prenatal exposure to acetaminophen and coffee with childhood asthma by Liu X1, Liew Z2, Olsen J1,2, Pedersen LH3, Bech BH1, Agerbo E4,5, Yuan W6, Li J7.(PubMed)(1) Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Thyroid Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by Han MA1, Kim JH2.(PubMed)

(36) Green tea and coffee consumption and its association with thyroid cancer risk: a population-based cohort study in Japan by Michikawa T1, Inoue M, Shimazu T, Sasazuki S, Iwasaki M, Sawada N, Yamaji T, Tsugane S.(PubMed)

(37) A pooled analysis of case-control studies of thyroid cancer: cigarette smoking and consumption of alcohol, coffee, and tea by Mack WJ1, Preston-Martin S, Dal Maso L, Galanti R, Xiang M, Franceschi S, Hallquist A, Jin F, Kolonel L, La Vecchia C, Levi F, Linos A, Lund E, McTiernan A, Mabuchi K, Negri E, Wingren G, Ron E.(PubMed)

(38) Does coffee consumption protect against thyroid disease? by Linos A1, Linos DA, Vgotza N, Souvatzoglou A, Koutras DA.(PubMed)